Identifying, Installing, and Upgrading Computer Components
Whether you are building a computer, upgrading, or fixing one, it is vital to be able to identify computer components to be successful.
Identifying Computer Components
An IT support technician needs to be able to identify many essential computer components to be able to install or upgrade them. While the following sections do not provide an exhaustive list of every computer component, they include the major components you need to be able to identify.
Processor
The processor is the brain of the computer. It processes instructions of the programs sent to it. It is also called a central processing unit, or CPU. Most modern CPUs have multiple cores. These cores act as almost independent processors and allow the CPU to process many workloads or tasks at one time. Early CPUs had one core. As a result, it could perform only one task at a time. Today, some high-end CPUs have as many as 96 cores! In many server setups, the motherboards can support multiple processors with each CPU having multiple cores.
In addition, many CPUs are capable of multithreading or hyperthreading. Think of a CPU core as an independent brain. If I have a dual-core CPU, it would be like having two brains with each brain being able to do very different tasks. Multithreading is like having a right brain and left brain in one core. You can perform different tasks in each brain half, but they can’t be radically different from each other. For example, with a multithreaded-capable core in this analogy, you could perform simple arithmetic while listening to classical music. However, you would not be able to do calculus while painting a complex scene in oil. Basically, the program being sent to a multithreaded core must be written to take advantage of this multithreading. Otherwise, it would just use another core. So, a dual-core CPU with multithreading has two cores but can split tasks in each core to have a pseudo four-core performance. In fact, Windows 11 shows these multithreaded cores as logical processors, so that a dual-core example would state two cores with four logical processors.
The way that a CPU processes instructions is separated into two camps: CISC and RISC. CISC stands for complex instruction set computer, and RISC stands for reduced instruction set computer. To simplify this distinction, let’s use the analogy of a complex calculus problem. A CISC processor would take the entire problem and work on solving it. In contrast, a RISC processor would break up the problem into smaller chunks and solve it. On one hand, the benefit of a CISC processor is the raw horsepower to deal with complex instructions. On the other hand, a RISC processor has the benefit of energy efficiency and speed in small instruction sets. Traditionally, desktop/laptop computers have used CISC processors, whereas mobile devices have used RISC processors.
The CPU architecture types x86/x64 versus ARM showcase the CISC/RISC division. ARM, which stands for Advanced RISC Machine, is RISC, as the name implies, and is used on most mobile devices for energy efficiency. The x86 is an older CISC architecture type that was limited to 32-bit processing. Today, most desktop computers run on x64, also CISC, which allows 64-bit processing and is backward-compatible with 32-bit processing.
The two CPU socket types for x64 processors are PGA and LGA. PGA stands for pin grid array. A PGA CPU has the pins on the CPU with the motherboard having the holes for the pins to be inserted into (see Figure 2-16). LGA stands for land grid array. In this style, the pins are on the motherboard with the CPU having flat contact points for the pins to touch (see Figure 2-17). Traditionally, Intel has supported LGA, and AMD has supported PGA. However, this has recently changed with AMD’s new AM5 CPU socket being LGA. Both PGA and LGA have many generations of sockets, so you can’t merely put any LGA CPU in an Intel-compatible motherboard. You would need to know whether it is an LGA 1700 or an LGA 1200, among many others.
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Figure 2.16 PGA CPU (the Pins Are on the CPU)
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Figure 2.17 LGA CPU and LGA Motherboard Socket (the Pins Are on the Motherboard)
Motherboard
If a processor is the brain of the computer, then the motherboard is the central nervous system. The CPU is installed on a motherboard. The motherboard is a large circuit board that is foundational for other components to connect and communicate through. It serves three main functions:
Connectivity: It allows vital communication between the CPU, RAM, graphics cards (also called video cards), storage devices, and more with the chipset working as the intermediary.
Power Delivery: The PSU supplies power directly to the motherboard through the 24-pin PSU cable; subsequently, the motherboard delivers power to various connected components such as the RAM, M.2 storage, and some lower-powered graphic cards.
Expansion: The motherboard often provides slots for expanding functionality like graphic cards, sound cards, video capture cards, Wi-Fi, and more.
Regarding connectivity and how the motherboard communicates between components, this is often done through the chipset on the motherboard. Originally, the chipset consisted of the Northbridge and Southbridge chipsets. The Northbridge handles communication between the CPU and extreme time-sensitive components such as RAM and the graphics card. The Southbridge chipset handles communication between the CPU and hard drives, optical drives, I/O ports, and less time-sensitive devices. On modern motherboards, most of the Northbridge’s chipset functions have been moved directly to the CPU for speed while remaining functions have been merged with the Southbridge chipset. Today, we rarely refer to Northbridge and Southbridge chipsets and merely call it the chipset.
If you are not sure of the processor and/or motherboard in a current machine, the easiest way to identify it in Windows is to press Windows+R to open the Run dialog box. Then type msinfo32 and press Enter. Here, you will see the CPU/Processor name, the motherboard manufacturer and specific model (labeled as BaseBoard Manufacturer/Product), and more detailed system information. You can also run systeminfo from the command prompt to see relevant information. For macOS, you will need to look in the “About This Mac” section. See the “macOS System Tools” section in Chapter 5, “macOS.”
RAM
To continue with the analogy of the human body and computer components, RAM would be short-term memory. RAM, or random-access memory, is where the operating system stores everything that is currently opened and being used. This includes operating system programs, files that are opened, and web pages currently being displayed in your browser. It is volatile in nature, which means that what is stored in RAM disappears when you restart your computer or shut it down. This is contrasted to storage devices such as hard drives or solid-state drives. Those are long-term storage devices and are nonvolatile. If you have a saved document, it will be saved on a storage device. However, when you open that saved document, the operating system will place a copy of its contents in RAM for speed of accessing it.
When referring to RAM, people often use the term RAM stick. A RAM stick is merely a piece of silicone with many memory modules on it that collectively form what is called RAM. While there are various forms of RAM, including the very fast static random-access memory (SRAM) that is used in CPU caches, most RAM being referred to is DDR SDRAM or GDDR SDRAM. DDR SDRAM, which stands for Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory, is often shortened to just DDR RAM and is used on modern computers. GDDR SDRAM is DDR RAM tuned for graphic cards and often called GDDR RAM (short for Graphics DDR RAM). DDR has gone through many iterations. With each iteration, speed and bandwidth have increased. As of this writing, the most modern motherboards utilize DDR5, and the most modern graphic cards utilize GDDR6. It is common that graphics cards utilize newer DDR standards because speed over cost is a priority for modern graphics cards. Also, you usually have lower amounts of RAM on a graphics card than you do on the main system. However, many gaming graphics cards have 16 gigabytes of GDDR, which often rivals what people have installed on their motherboard.
Peripherals
In addition to a CPU, motherboard, and RAM, computers also have peripherals. Peripherals can be both input and output devices. They can also be external or internal. A keyboard is an external, input peripheral device. The devices connected directly to the motherboard are internal peripheral devices. Video/graphics cards, wireless network cards, Bluetooth cards, and even storage devices such as hard drives and solid-state drives are all peripheral devices. These internal peripherals can be integrated on the motherboard from the factory, such as wireless and Ethernet NICs, or installed afterward, such as graphics cards and storage devices. These can be installed in expansion slots such as PCIe slots or dedicated ports such as SATA or M.2.
Storage Devices
Traditionally, hard drives were the long-term, nonvolatile, storage device in computers. Hard drives are magnetically written storage devices that have a spinning metal platter, almost looking like a miniature metal record player, that reads and writes data. The issues with hard drives are those two defining characteristics. First, hard drives store their information magnetically. This makes them susceptible to magnetic interference, and that interference can even cause data corruption. In fact, the official way to erase a hard drive for recycling purposes is to use a degausser. A degausser creates a strong magnetic field that erases the hard drive. Additionally, magnetic storage will degrade over time, much like an old VHS tape that loses its information over time (it is magnetically stored as well). A hard drive could last 5 years, or it could last 20 years. The problem is that over time data degradation is inevitable.
The second issue with hard drives is the spinning of that metal platter with the moving actuator arm (think of a tone arm on a record player). Because these parts are mechanical in nature, they can break. Are hard drives dead technology? No. In a cost to performance to storage size comparison, hard drives still win when looking at large storage needs. Yes, SSDs perform much faster than hard drives, but as the storage size increases, so do their prices. As of this writing, an 8 TB SSD is three times more expensive than an 8 TB hard drive. For smaller sizes, the price is less of a difference, but the larger sizes see a large difference. Hard drives come in two main form factors: 3.5 inch, which is typical for desktop computers, and 2.5 inch, which is typical for laptops.
Solid-state drive, or SSD, is a newer long-term, nonvolatile, storage device in computers. SSDs are neither mechanical nor magnetic. Instead, they use a type of flash memory to store the data. This means there are no moving parts to break and no issue with magnetic fields. While there can still be quality control issues with the actual flash memory modules that are installed that can cause premature failure, they usually have a finite number of read and write cycles. This means that it is normally possible to calculate exactly how long the SSD will last by looking at how many times the SSD has been read/written. There are two main form factors for SSDs: 2.5 inch, the same size as a laptop hard drive, and M.2.
Installing and Upgrading Computer Components
With the exception of the PSU, you should always wear an antistatic wrist strap and use ESD safety when working with computer components. Whether building a new computer or upgrading components on a computer, it is important to know the relationships between the components. The two sets of relationships you need to understand are form factor and compatibility factor. The following information mainly applies to desktop computers and not laptop/all-in-one computers.
Form Factor
The form factor relationship is usually defined as the physical dimension relationship between the motherboard, case (sometimes called tower), and PSU. Motherboards come in various physical sizes, such as ATX-E, ATX, Micro ATX, and ITX boards (listed from largest to smallest). As a rule of thumb, the larger the motherboard, the more physical connections and features it has. If you are building a simple home theater computer to play movies and music, you probably don’t need an ATX-E but could get away with a smaller board like a Mini-ITX or Mini PC board like the Intel NUC. The motherboard’s size will determine the computer case you use as well. A small case designed for a Mini-ITX board will not fit ATX-sized boards. However, a large computer case could fit an ATX-E board all the way down to a Mini-ITX board, but you might have a lot of wasted space inside. You will read terms such as full-sized tower, mid-sized tower, and small form factor cases when researching cases. Unfortunately, there is no agreed-upon consensus on what physical dimensions make up these terms. Some mid-sized towers can hold an ATX board or a Micro ATX, whereas some only support Micro ATX and smaller. Basically, you need to read the case’s dimensions to see what size motherboard it can hold. The two most common sized desktop motherboards are ATX and Micro ATX.
In addition to the relationship between the size of the motherboard and the size of the case to hold it, you also need to look at the size of the PSU. Traditional desktop power supply units are ATX PS/2 form factor. These fit in most mid-sized towers and above. There is also the smaller SFX PSU form factor for smaller cases like those that might fit a Mini-ITX board, and the even smaller TFX for some Mini-PC cases. These terms refer only to the physical dimensions of the PSUs. You need to choose the wattage of the PSU based on what you’re running inside the computer.
Compatibility Factor
In addition to the form factor compatibility, you also need to look at the compatibility factor. This is especially important when looking at the CPU, motherboard, and RAM relationship. With desktop computers, you basically have two manufacturers of CPUs: Intel and AMD. An Intel CPU will not install on an AMD-compatible motherboard or vice versa. Furthermore, the specific CPU will run only on certain chipsets and socket types on the motherboard. Consequently, if you have a computer with an Intel Core i5-9300 CPU, it must be installed on an Intel-compatible motherboard with an LGA 1151 socket type and a compatible chipset like the H310 chipset. This makes it much harder to upgrade computer components. If you wanted to upgrade that same Intel Core i5-9300 CPU to a newer Intel Core i5-14600, you would also have to replace the motherboard because the socket type changed from an LGA 1151 to an LGA 1700 in that time, and you would need a newer 600 or 700 series chipset.
Using the same example, in addition to changing the motherboard for the new CPU, you will also probably need to change the RAM. The Intel Core i5-9300 compatible motherboards utilized DDR4. Most of the newer Intel boards utilize DDR5. Luckily, the iteration of RAM is not dependent on whether it’s an Intel or AMD CPU, but rather on the motherboard and chipset. The new AMD motherboards, utilizing the AM5 CPU socket, have transitioned to using DDR5 while the newer Intel motherboards are starting that transition over to DDR5 as well. The number after the DDR on the RAM denotes a different generation or iteration of the RAM. You cannot stick a DDR4 RAM stick in a motherboard designed for DDR5 RAM because it won’t fit. There is a notch in the bottom of the RAM stick that is in a different place on the different generations of RAM. This notch helps to make sure you place the RAM in the correct orientation and to help with putting the wrong generation of RAM in (see Figure 2-18). In DDR5 the notch is closer to the center of the RAM stick, so DDR4 RAM will not insert correctly.
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Figure 2.18 RAM Stick (the Notch in the Bottom Helps Installation Orientation)
To simplify, before you start assembling a computer or upgrading parts, make sure that you understand the physical form factor relationship of the case, motherboard, and power supply. Additionally, the motherboard, CPU, and RAM must be compatible with each other whether you’re building new or upgrading.
Installing/Upgrading: Processor/Motherboard
Always read the motherboard manual to see the exact steps to install a motherboard and the CPU. The model of the motherboard is generally written on the motherboard itself.
To install the motherboard, follow these steps:
For new builds, prepare the case: Take the side panel of the case and locate the standoffs (threaded metal posts). If they’re not preinstalled, screw them into the holes designated for the motherboard size (ATX, Micro ATX, and so on) according to your motherboard manual (some cases have labels next to the holes that state ATX, Micro ATX, and so on, to help with the process).
For existing builds, double-check the standoffs to make sure they are in the correct position for the replacement motherboard. It is critical that a standoff does not exist where there is not a hole on the motherboard for a screw; otherwise, the standoff could be touching the back of the motherboard and possibly short-circuit it!
Install the rear input/output (I/O) shield: Some motherboards have this shield or backplate preinstalled on the motherboard itself, but most don’t. This metal shield should come with the motherboard and is placed on the rear of the case matching the cutouts for your motherboard’s ports.
Place the motherboard: Lower the motherboard onto the standoffs while making sure the motherboard holes align with the standoff screw holes.
Secure the motherboard: Screw the motherboard down to the standoffs using the included screws that come with the case. Don’t overtighten because you risk unscrewing the standoffs when trying to loosen the screws on top of the motherboard if you need to remove it.
For PGA CPUs, hold the CPU up to the light and carefully look down the rows of pins to make sure none are bent. Don’t touch the pins or top of the CPU while doing this because you don’t want your finger oils to create hot spots anywhere on the CPU. There are special gloves you can wear when handling the CPU, but wearing an antistatic wrist strap and carefully holding the CPU only on its sides are usually okay as well. If you see a bent pin, you can either return the CPU or try to carefully use a razor blade to bend the pin straight again. Understand that if you do the latter, you run the risk of bending the pin too much and it breaking off because it’s thin metal!
For LGA CPUs, make sure the pins are not bent on the CPU socket on the motherboard. This is harder to see than bent pins on a PGA CPU, so you might take a flashlight to shine on the socket to see if you see any bent pins. Unfortunately, if you see a bent pin on the motherboard socket, it is nearly impossible to fix. You will probably be returning the motherboard.
To install the CPU, follow these steps:
Locate the CPU socket: It’s usually a square socket in the center of the motherboard.
Open the socket lever: Carefully release the lever that secures the CPU in place (refer to your motherboard manual for specifics).
Place the CPU: Hold the CPU by the edges, aligning the notches or triangles on the CPU with the corresponding markers on the socket. Gently lower it into the socket.
Use zero-force insertion! This means that you merely lower the CPU onto the socket and do not press down. Imagine setting a delicate plate down on a hard counter. You don’t drop it down, you don’t press it down, you just gently place it down.
Once you’ve set it down, you can very gently wiggle the CPU from side to side and front to back to make sure it’s in place. Sometimes, you will feel it fall into place; this is okay if you didn’t put pressure downward when wiggling it. Make sure that you still do not touch the top of the CPU.
Close the socket lever: Secure the CPU by gently closing the lever.
Apply thermal paste (optional): If your CPU cooler doesn’t come with pre-applied thermal paste, you’ll need to put a small, pea-sized amount in the center of the CPU. More is not better!
Place the active cooling: Install the heat sink/CPU cooler, being sure to follow the directions that came with it. Aftermarket heat sinks are often for various CPU sockets, so be sure to read the directions on those extra carefully.
Installing/Upgrading: RAM/Storage Devices/Internal Peripherals
With DDR RAM, you get the most speed by installing them in pairs. The reason is that motherboards have memory channels. If you are installing a pair of DDR RAM sticks, you will want to install them in the same channel, which is often color coded on the dual-inline memory module (DIMM) slots themselves on the motherboard. The DIMM slots are where you install RAM (see Figure 2-19).
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Figure 2.19 DIMM Slots with Color-Coded Channels
To install the RAM, follow these steps (make sure computer is off):
Open the locking mechanisms: On the motherboard, the DIMM slots will have two locking mechanisms that you need to open by flipping outward. Some motherboard DIMM slots have only one side that will open; this is normal.
Find the notch: RAM sticks have two notches on each side with a single notch on the bottom. This bottom notch needs to line up with a matching notch or ridge on the RAM slot. This helps to correctly orient the RAM and make sure you don’t put a different generation of RAM in.
Align and insert: Hold the RAM by the edges, aligning the notch with the slot’s notch and gently slide in evenly before applying pressure.
Apply pressure: Once it is in position and slid down evenly with very little pressure to just put in position, gently but firmly press the RAM stick further down into the slot until you hear a click from both locking mechanisms on the sides.
On modern computers, you will connect your hard drives, SSDs, and optical drives to a SATA port on the motherboard with a SATA data cable. Figure 2-20 shows a SATA port on a motherboard. In addition to connecting to a SATA data port, you will also need to connect to a SATA power cable coming from the PSU.
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Figure 2.20 SATA Data Port on a Motherboard
For an M.2 form factor drive, you will install it directly on the motherboard with no additional data or power cable needed. There are different sizes of M.2 with 2280 being the most common. The M.2 port is often located between the PCIe expansion slots on the motherboard.
To install an M.2 storage drive, follow these steps (make sure the computer is powered off and you are using an antistatic wrist strap):
Unscrew the M.2 slot cover: The M.2 slot might have two small screws holding a cover in place. Remove the screws and the cover if present. Some motherboards have the cover, and some do not. The cover acts as a heatsink to help keep the drive cool. There is often a thin plastic film on the downward-facing side that needs to be removed to expose the sticky adhesive before placing it back.
Find the correct standoff position: M.2 comes in many sizes with 2280 being the most common. There should be a standoff located next to a number. This indicates the size of the M.2 drive and what the drive will rest on and be secured to. Remove the standoff and place it into the correct position if not in it already. Some motherboards do not have the standoff preinstalled. If it’s not, it will come in a bag with the motherboard. Find it and put it in the correct position. The end with the notch will fit into the actual M.2 port, and the other end will lie down and be secured with one screw in the standoff.
Identify the notch: Both the M.2 drive and the port/slot will have a notch. These notches must be lined up for proper installation.
Insert the drive: Carefully insert the M.2 drive into the port/slot at an angle (between 30 and 45 degrees) while aligning the notch on the drive with the notch on the port/slot (see Figure 2-21). Apply gentle pressure at the angle to have it fully inserted. When done correctly, the drive will remain in the angled position when let go.
Figure 2.21 M.2 NVMe Drive Being Installed
Tilt and secure: Once it is inserted, gently tilt the drive down until it lies flat on the standoff on the opposite side of the port. Secure it with the screw in the standoff or from the motherboard bag that contains the standoff and screw. Don’t overtighten because it is easy to snap off the standoff.
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While some CPUs come with a built-in graphics processing unit (GPU) to output video to the monitor, many do not. In this case, you would need to install a graphics or video card. This would be considered an internal peripheral expansion card. Other expansion cards you might want to install would be wireless NICs to connect wirelessly to the Internet if your motherboard doesn’t have one built in, video capture cards for editing video, Bluetooth cards for Bluetooth connectivity, audio cards for higher-quality audio output, and more. While external peripherals are usually connected to USB, internal peripherals are usually connected to PCI or PCIe slots/ports located directly on the motherboard. Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) is an older technology to connect expansion cards to. It is being replaced by PCI Express (PCIe). PCIe is capable of much faster data transfer as well as more bandwidth of data transfer. There are four PCIe expansion slots you might find on a motherboard: PCIe x1, PCIe x4, PCIe x8, and PCIe x16. The x and the number refer to the number of lanes of data communication the port can use. Typical motherboards often have one or two PCIe x16 slots and one or two PCIe x1 slots. Graphics cards will use PCIe x16 slots because they need more bandwidth than a wireless NIC, which might need only a PCIe x1 slot. If you have a PCIe x8 expansion card and no PCIe x8 slot/port on the motherboard, it will not fit in a PCIex1 slot, but you can use a PCIe x16 slot. It won’t fill all the pins, but it will work. See Figure 2-22 for a motherboard with both PCIe x16 and PCIe x1 slots.
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Figure 2.22 PCIe Expansion Slots (Bottom Three Are Older PCI Slots; Above Bottom Three Is PCIe x1, Followed by PCIe x16, and Top Is PCIe x1)
To install an expansion card, follow these steps (make sure the computer is powered off):
Remove the cover screw: Some cases may have a small screw holding a metal cover plate over the empty expansion slot on the back of the computer case. Remove this screw and the cover plate if present.
Align the card: Carefully hold the expansion card by its edges or mounting bracket. Align the gold connector edge of the card with the corresponding slot on the motherboard.
Insert and secure: Gently but firmly press the card straight down into the slot until it’s fully seated. You should hear a click from the latch on the slot. Secure the card in place with the screw you removed earlier (if applicable). Don’t force the card.
Post Installation Checklist
After you are finished installing or upgrading your PC, there are a couple of steps you should follow:
Power on the computer after double-checking all cables and parts are correctly positioned or installed.
If a new build, you will need to install an operating system at this point.
If you installed Windows, you will need to go to Device Manager to make sure you have no missing drivers or issues with your hardware (see Figure 2-23).
Figure 2.23 Windows Device Manager
In Windows, click the Start menu icon and type device manager in the search bar to find it. You can also press Windows+R on your keyboard to open the Run dialog box. Then type devmgmt.msc in the open box and press Enter/OK. Other ways to reach Device Manager include right-clicking the Windows logo and selecting Device Manager from the context menu. They will all get you to the same place.
You will see device categories listed here. If you see a yellow exclamation mark next to an item, you are missing a driver or Windows is using a generic driver. You might also see the yellow exclamation point with the words “Unknown Device” by it. Either way, you will need to fix this. There are two ways to approach this issue.
Right-click the item with the yellow exclamation point and choose Update Driver Software from the context menu (the context menu is the right-click menu in Windows). Then choose Search Automatically for Updated Driver Software from the next menu. This sometimes will allow Windows to find the correct driver, but you must be connected to the Internet.
If the previous method didn’t work and the device is listed, but it has a yellow exclamation mark by it, you can go to the motherboard manufacturer’s website, or the company website if a prebuilt computer, and search for the specific driver. If it states something like Biometric reader, look on the motherboard support website for your specific model and see if there is a fingerprint driver or the like. Download and install the driver and look to see if it is resolved in Device Manager.
For stubborn drivers or unknown devices, you can right-click the item and choose Properties. From there, choose the Details tab and select Hardware Ids. You can then copy the value and paste it into a search engine. You will often find what the device is from various sites that cross-reference the hardware ID with the actual device. Do not download a driver from a random site! Always use the motherboard’s official support site or the manufacturer’s site.
After making sure your drivers are installed correctly, update your operating system for optimum performance.
Do not throw old parts in the trash! Many computer components contain dangerous chemicals and elements that are harmful to the environment. Always follow e-waste best practices to dispose of old parts. Often, your city’s website or local fire department can help direct you to e-waste centers for proper disposal.
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